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Manhattan Project - Wikipedia. The Manhattan Project was a research and development undertaking during World War II that produced the first nuclear weapons. It was led by the United States with the support of the United Kingdom and Canada. From 1. 94. 2 to 1. Major General. Leslie Groves of the U. S. Army Corps of Engineers.

Nuclear physicist Robert Oppenheimer was the director of the Los Alamos Laboratory that designed the actual bombs. The Army component of the project was designated the Manhattan District; "Manhattan" gradually superseded the official codename, Development of Substitute Materials, for the entire project. Along the way, the project absorbed its earlier British counterpart, Tube Alloys.

The Manhattan Project began modestly in 1. US $2 billion (about $2. Over 9. 0% of the cost was for building factories and to produce fissile material, with less than 1. Research and production took place at more than 3. United States, the United Kingdom, and Canada. Two types of atomic bombs were developed concurrently during the war: a relatively simple gun- type fission weapon and a more complex implosion- type nuclear weapon.

The Thin Man gun- type design proved impractical to use with plutonium so a simpler gun- type called Little Boy was developed that used uranium- 2. Chemically identical to the most common isotope, uranium- 2. Three methods were employed for uranium enrichment: electromagnetic, gaseous and thermal. Most of this work was performed at the Clinton Engineer Works at Oak Ridge, Tennessee. In parallel with the work on uranium was an effort to produce plutonium. After the feasibility of the world's first artificial nuclear reactor was demonstrated in Chicago at the Metallurgical Laboratory, it designed the X- 1. Graphite Reactor at Oak Ridge and the production reactors in Hanford, Washington, in which uranium was irradiated and transmuted into plutonium.

The plutonium was then chemically separated from the uranium. The Fat Man implosion- type weapon was developed in a concerted design and development effort by the Los Alamos Laboratory.

The project was also charged with gathering intelligence on the German nuclear weapon project. Through Operation Alsos, Manhattan Project personnel served in Europe, sometimes behind enemy lines, where they gathered nuclear materials and documents, and rounded up German scientists. Despite the Manhattan Project's tight security, Soviet atomic spies successfully penetrated the program. The first nuclear device ever detonated was an implosion- type bomb at the Trinity test, conducted at New Mexico's Alamogordo Bombing and Gunnery Range on 1. July 1. 94. 5. Little Boy and Fat Man bombs were used a month later in the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, respectively. In the immediate postwar years, the Manhattan Project conducted weapons testing at Bikini Atoll as part of Operation Crossroads, developed new weapons, promoted the development of the network of national laboratories, supported medical research into radiology and laid the foundations for the nuclear navy. It maintained control over American atomic weapons research and production until the formation of the United States Atomic Energy Commission in January 1.

Origins. The discovery of nuclear fission by German chemists Otto Hahn and Fritz Strassmann in 1. Lise Meitner and Otto Frisch, made the development of an atomic bomb a theoretical possibility. There were fears that a German atomic bomb project would develop one first, especially among scientists who were refugees from Nazi Germany and other fascist countries. In August 1. 93. 9, Hungarian- born physicists Leó Szilárd and Eugene Wigner drafted the Einstein–Szilárd letter, which warned of the potential development of "extremely powerful bombs of a new type".

It urged the United States to take steps to acquire stockpiles of uranium ore and accelerate the research of Enrico Fermi and others into nuclear chain reactions. They had it signed by Albert Einstein and delivered to President.

Franklin D. Roosevelt. Roosevelt called on Lyman Briggs of the National Bureau of Standards to head the Advisory Committee on Uranium to investigate the issues raised by the letter. Briggs held a meeting on 2. Watch The Witches Of Oz Online Etonline.

October 1. 93. 9, which was attended by Szilárd, Wigner and Edward Teller. The committee reported back to Roosevelt in November that uranium "would provide a possible source of bombs with a destructiveness vastly greater than anything now known."[3]The Advisory Committee on Uranium became the National Defense Research Committee (NDRC) Committee on Uranium when that organization was formed on 2. June 1. 94. 0.[4] Briggs proposed spending $1.

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On 2. 8 June 1. 94. Roosevelt signed Executive Order 8. Office of Scientific Research and Development (OSRD),[6] with Vannevar Bush as its director. The office was empowered to engage in large engineering projects in addition to research.[5] The NDRC Committee on Uranium became the S- 1 Section of the OSRD; the word "uranium" was dropped for security reasons.[7]In Britain, Frisch and Rudolf Peierls at the University of Birmingham had made a breakthrough investigating the critical mass of uranium- 2. June 1. 93. 9.[8] Their calculations indicated that it was within an order of magnitude of 1.

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Their March 1. 94. Frisch–Peierls memorandum initiated the British atomic bomb project and its Maud Committee,[1. Watch Meng Long Guo Jiang Full Movie here. In July 1. 94. 0, Britain had offered to give the United States access to its scientific research, and the Tizard Mission's John Cockcroft briefed American scientists on British developments.

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He discovered that the American project was smaller than the British, and not as far advanced. As part of the scientific exchange, the Maud Committee's findings were conveyed to the United States.

One of its members, the Australian physicist Mark Oliphant, flew to the United States in late August 1. Maud Committee had not reached key American physicists.

Oliphant then set out to find out why the committee's findings were apparently being ignored. He met with the Uranium Committee and visited Berkeley, California, where he spoke persuasively to Ernest O.

Lawrence. Lawrence was sufficiently impressed to commence his own research into uranium. He in turn spoke to James B. Conant, Arthur H.

Compton and George B. Pegram. Oliphant's mission was therefore a success; key American physicists were now aware of the potential power of an atomic bomb.[1.

On 9 October 1. 94.

Banished Word List Archive – Lake Superior State University***This year, in a gesture of humanitarian relief, the committee restores “truthiness,” banned on last year’s list, to formal use. This comes after comedians and late- night hosts were thrown under the bus and rendered speechless by a nationwide professional writers’ strike.

The silence is deafening.***PERFECT STORM – “Overused by the pundits on evening TV shows to mean just about any coincidence.” – Lynn Allen, Warren, Michigan.“I read that ‘Ontario is a perfect storm,’ in reference to a report on pollution levels in the Great Lakes. Ontario is the name of one of the lakes and a Canadian province. This guy would have me believe it’s a hurricane. It’s time for ‘perfect storm’ to get rained out.” – Bob Smith, De. Witt, Michigan.“Hands off book titles as cheap descriptors!” – David Hollis, Hamilton, New York.

WEBINAR – A seminar on the web about any number of topics.“Ouch! It hurts my brain.

It should be crushed immediately before it spreads.” – Carol, Lams, Michigan.“Yet another non- word trying to worm its way into the English language due to the Internet. It belongs in the same school of non- thought that brought us e- anything and i- anything.” – Scott Lassiter, Houston, Texas. WATERBOARDING – “Let’s banish ‘waterboarding’ to the beach, where it belongs with boogie boards and surfboards.” – Patrick K. Egan, Sault Ste. Marie, Michigan. ORGANIC – Overused and misused to describe not only food, but computer products or human behavior, and often used when describing something as “natural,” says Crystal Giordano of Brooklyn, New York. Another advertising gimmick to make things sound better than they really are, according to Rick De.

Van of Willoughby, Ohio, who said he has heard claims such as “My business is organic,” and computers having “organic software.”“Things have gone too far when they begin marketing T- shirts as organic.” – Michelle Fitzpatrick, St. Petersburg, Florida.“‘Organic’ is used to describe everything, from shampoo to meat. Banishment! Improperly used!” – Susan Clark, Bristol, Maine.“The possibility of a food item being inorganic, i. John Gomila, New Orleans, Louisiana.“You see the word ‘organic’ written on everything from cereal to dog food.” – Michael, Sacramento, California.“I’m tired of health food stores selling products that they say are organic.

All the food we eat is organic!” – Chad Jacobson, Park Falls, Wisconsin. WORDSMITH/WORDSMITHING – “I’ve never read anything created by a wordsmith – or via wordsmithing – that was pleasant to read.” – Emily Kissane, St. Paul, Minnesota. AUTHOR/AUTHORED – “In one of former TV commentator Edwin Newman’s books, he wonders if it would be correct to say that someone ‘paintered’ a picture?” – Dorothy Betzweiser, Cincinnati, Ohio. POST 9/1. 1 – “‘Our post- 9/1.

AD, BC, or Y2. K, time references. You’d think the United States didn’t have jet fighters, nuclear bombs, and secret agents, let alone electricity, ‘pre- 9/1. Chazz Miner, Midland, Michigan.

SURGE – “‘Surge’ has become a reference to a military build- up. Give me the old days, when it referenced storms and electrical power.” – Michael F. Raczko, Swanton, Ohio.“Do I even have to say it? I can’t be the first one to nominate it…put me in line. From Iraq to Wall Street to the weather forecast – ‘surge’ really ought to recede.” – Mike Lara, Colorado.“This word came out in the context of increasing the number of troops in Iraq. Can be used to explain the expansion of many things (I have a surge in my waist) and it’s use will grow out of control…The new Chevy Surge, just experience the roominess!” – Eric Mc. Millan, Mentor, Ohio.

GIVE BACK – “This oleaginous phrase is an emergency submission to the 2. The notion has arisen that as one’s life progresses, one accumulates a sort of deficit balance with society which must be neutralized by charitable works or financial outlays. Are one’s daily transactions throughout life a form of theft?” – Richard Ong, Carthage, Missouri.“Various media have been featuring a large number of people who ‘just want to give back.’ Give back to whom? For what?” – Curtis Cooper, Hazel Park, Michigan.‘BLANK’ is the new ‘BLANK’ or ‘X’ is the new ‘Y’ – In spite of statements to the contrary, ‘Cold is (NOT) the new hot,’ nor is ’7. The idea behind such comparisons was originally good, but we’ve all watched them spiral out of reasonable uses into ludicrous ones and it’s now time to banish them from use.

Or, to phrase it another way, ‘Originally clever advertising is now the new absurdity!'” – Lawrence Mickel, Coventry, Connecticut.“Believed to have come into use in the 1. The comparisons have become absurd.” – Geoff Steinhart, Sault Ste. Marie, Michigan.“‘Orange is the new black.’ ’5. Chocolate is the new sex.’ ‘Sex is the new chocolate.’ ‘Fallacy is the new truth.’ – Patrick Dillon, East Lansing, Michigan. BLACK FRIDAY – “The day after Thanksgiving that retailers use to keep themselves out of the ‘red’ for the year. And then followed by “Cyber- Monday.”) This is counter to the start of the Great Depression’s use of the term ‘Black Tuesday,’ which signaled the crash of the stock market that sent the economy into a tailspin. Carl Marschner, Melvindale, Michigan.

BACK IN THE DAY – “Back in the day, we used ‘back- in- the- day’ to mean something really historical. Now you hear ridiculous statements such as ‘Back in the day, people used Blackberries without Blue Tooth.'” – Liz Jameson, Tallahassee, Florida.“This one might’ve already made the list back in the day, which was a Wednesday, I think.” – Tim Bradley, Los Angeles, California. RANDOM – Popular with teenagers in many places.“Over- used and usually out of context, i. You are so random!’ Really?

Random is supposed to mean ‘by chance.’ So what I said was by chance, and not by choice?” – Gabriel Brandel, Farmington Hills, Michigan.“Outrageous mis- and overuse, mostly by teenagers, i. This random guy, singing this random song…It was so random.’ Grrrrr.” – Leigh, Duncan, Galway, Ireland.“Overuse on a massive scale by my fellow youth. Every event, activity and person can be ‘sooo random’ as of late. Banish it before I go vigilante.” – Ben Martin, Adelaide, South Australia.“How can a person be random?” – Emma Halpin, Liverpool, Merseyside, United Kingdom.

SWEET – “Too many sweets will make you sick. It became popular with the advent of the television show ‘South Park’ and by rights should have died of natural causes, but the term continues to cling to life.